Free Management Essays - The Difficulties And Problems Encountered By Organisations Operating In Hostile Environments And Areas
Initially NGOs (non-governmental organizations) have been designed to provide humanitarian aid to conflict areas. As the role of NGOs and donors evolved, the consistent priority of their work divulged and includes responses to complex emergency situations in war areas as well as political emergencies. They no longer work on the fringe of conflict but rather have more power to control war zones and use all kinds of international humanitarian intervention to dissolve conflict situations. The involvement in political situations and areas has made NGOs major players in interventions and at the same targets for violence. They become involved in conflict born out of area dispute while at other time they are thrust into conflict as part of engagement with the political institutions they are affiliated with. Given this trend experts like Duffield, Macrae and Zwy have noted that "being able to mount humanitarian operations in war situations became a hallmark of NGO "flexibility" during the latter phases of the Cold War and its immediate aftermath" (Duffield et al, 1994, p.226-227). In such a case NGOs have the choice of withdrawing, adapt or respond (Fisher 1995). NGOs over the years have become part of the violent environment in which they operate not through choice but out of necessity. Eventually they will realize that they have to adapt to be able to achieve the objectives of delivering humanitarian services to the local. The choice to adapt and become flexible is not easy as it means that the institutional frameworks have to be flexible to accommodate for these adaptations.
The decision to operate in conflict areas involves danger and opportunity. The more involved NGOs are in creating a niche for themselves in conflict and emergency situations the more opportunities they get for delivering services and in getting financial aids from donor institutions. Since the motivations for many of these NGOs nowadays are other than humanitarian, they strive and aim to achieve even more dangerous opportunities to serve their objectives. Resolving human tragedies are not the sole responses that NGOs seek but rather they strive to implement methods and techniques of aids that have long lasting effects. Aside from the conventional aids they are also engaged in deep relief activities to benefit the war ravaged communities such as building social, economical, political and personal frameworks. As more and more areas in the world are becoming war torn, the need for NGOs to respond to cries for relief has also grown considerably.
The range of needs has diversified to the extent that it demands NGOs to engage in community living, religious issues, political agendas, economical status as well as finding long term opportunities for the population they aid. There is no harm in these activities except for the fact that communities in conflict areas are hostile towards foreigners and more so if the foreigners are responsible for interfering with their ways of life without knowing it. The danger of escalating violence from the people is great as they perceive intervention as a source of domination. Unawareness of the local psyches, their culture, and style of living, beliefs, despair and disillusionment often result in violent reactions. The importance of self knowledge and training are desired in situations where NGOs operate within the dangerous terrain of conflict areas. Trade-off between dangers and opportunities means exposing NGO workers to the violent environment.
In this context, there is great need for the development of awareness strategies as well as standard operating procedures (SOPs) for volunteers and workers alike to understand the concept of maximizing opportunities without compromising themselves to danger. The trade-off balance is not usually simple to achieve but the objective is not to achieve the balance. The best option for NGOs is to maximize opportunities and minimizing dangers. The use of situation analysis to define the appropriate strategies and procedures is incumbent nowadays as it would justify the actions taken to mitigate dangers and at the same time achieve the objective of fulfilling people's needs. However, this approach has become limited in the recent years as NGOs are becoming more committed to the communities they serve and thereby require extra cooperative, community leadership and conflict mitigation skills to be able to work in such an environment. Furthermore, these workers also require the ability to analyze situations, understand and monitor the cause of conflict to be able to discern the depth of the danger they are in. In most cases of conflict areas, the dilemma is two folds. According to experts (Duffield et al, 1994; Slim 1996) conflict areas of the world today are faced with the problem of receiving aids on the one hand while at the same time they are also getting weapons to fuel the fire of conflict. NGOs that are responsible for the aids have to face the fact that they are also responsible for the proliferation of arms to the communities which escalate conflict. Political intervention therefore not only increase the danger but also responsible for increasing violence in the environment. In the midst of such disturbed environment, NGO institutions must create a balance for its workers to be able to operate within the dimensions of their origin political leaders (the Security Council, home country political leaders) without being offensive to the local communities.
Given this scenario, the researcher is of the opinion that there is a great need for creating a framework for operations that would not compromise NGOs and its sister concerns and yet serves the purpose of aiding the people in conflict areas. A balance between the two may not be possible yet it is possible to devise measures to mitigate conflict through SOPs within the organizations so that the volunteers and workers do not become responsible for further conflict. Furthermore, most of these workers are exposed to violent work environment at times resulting in fatalities. They require strategies to address safety and security born out of conflict situations. Security management is highly critical for them. To identify these operational procedures for the security of the organization, its people and the communities they serve will be some of the objectives of this paper. More specifically the researcher will use the following research questions to guide through the work:
Hypothesis Questions
What would be the minimum, acceptable security climate that your organization would be prepared to operate in?
Would the existing standard operating procedures within your organization commensurate with a proposed new operation or location?
Could the organization provide adequate security for its staff and installations in the field?
A survey of literature in the next section endeavours to identify the origin of conflict, the dimensions of conflict, existing SOPs that are being used at the United Department of Peacekeeping Operations and how these could be compared with other organizations working in conflict areas. The purpose is to compare the risks prevalent in these NGOs; how they deviate from the UN's designated procedures and how they could compromise the security of the workers involved in organizations. By the end of the literature review, the researcher hopes to gain insight to the operational security issues and propose techniques for mitigating risks.
Literature Survey
Conflict and conflict analysis
Conflict is inevitable in communities where humans develop relationships. It may or may not be a negative concept but the core ideology behind it is that conflict is born out of tension, stress and disagreement on certain aspects of life. When resolved, conflict could turn out to be an amicable ideal situation for both parties as both stands to gain from the new agreed terms. Conflict is part of violence, change, difference and disagreement and sometimes it is also the result of abuse of power. Whichever the definition or the relations one forms with the term conflict, at the core of it is the fact that conflict often result in violence and it must be resolved before it escalates to such a stage.
According to Adams and Bradbury (1994) conflict is not an exceptional event or isolated issue but rather it is a pervasive problem that affects millions of people. As a result of conflict, development of communities cannot take place resulting in emergency situations which may be short or long term. Through the humanitarian aids, affected communities can return to normal but nevertheless they have to bear the brunt of conflict in the form of poverty, displacement, economic downturn and hardship for generations. Sometimes the conflict is prolonged so that they are referred to as permanent emergencies. The longetivity of conflict therefore is an important factor for motivating NGOs to participate in and design long term strategies for resolving such conflict. Their response cannot only be for short term solutions but rather well defined plans for the resolution of the conflict prevalent in the region which may affect generations to come. Some of the regions involved in long term conflict include Africa, Asia and Latin America.
Given the longevity of such conflict situations organizations working in the capacity of humanitarian aids have to be aware of the nature and types of conflict between or within states. Intra state conflicts refer to the civil wars and conflict among political groups that result in community insecurity, behavioural change, ethical dilemmas as well as severity of human and political relations. Some of these intra state conflicts can result in the most severe kind of violence. On the other hand inter state conflicts refer to the international rivalries or political hegemony struggles for political acceptance and ideology. Some of the states want to be recognized by the international bodies and often conflict with other neighbouring states' interests which result in violence in the form of wars. To understand the nature of such inter and intra state conflict is detrimental for the operation of NGO institutions as it has great impact on the operational mode and emergency responses carried out by these organizations.
According to Slim (1996) there are nine key areas of conflict analysis. These are:
1. Impact analysis of violent conflict:
This refers to the ability of the organization to operate within conflict area by understanding and anticipating the likely impact of the conflict on people's lives. This understanding leads to the determination of emergency needs. Impact analysis includes determination of direct human impact, indirect socio-economic impact and opportunity costs (Stewart and Wilson, 1994).
2. Analysis of causes:
Analysis of causes is critical in classifying the causes of conflict to particular groups which also helps in determining the depth of conflict, the interests therein and the emerging violence. Some of the causes of conflicts include trade wars, resources, territorial, status, ethnic, religious, cultural, ideological and governance wars (Rupesinghe, 1994). These categories identify the value, the ideas and the sense that those involved are pursuing. NGOs involved in regions engaged in such conflict is better equipped in dealing with the conflict situations if they are aware of the sources of violence and the complexity of the emergency problems emerging from it. Programs can then be developed to address the conflict emergencies and to monitor the factors for escalating it. Addressing the violence of Rwanda, for example Lemarchand (1994) writes "the root cause of ethnic violence must be found in the extent to which collective identities have been reactivated, mythologized and manipulated for political advantage" (Lemarchand, 1994). In their efforts to aid the locals sometimes NGOs ignore the root cause and instead of diffusing the conflict problem, escalate it. Keen and Wilson (1994) for example identifies situations in which NGOs escalate conflict:
"In resource wars relief commodities are a resource worth fighting for.
Relief becomes part of people's political and military goals.
Relief aid is worth raiding from others.
Relief aid is worth attracting by increasing suffering and destitution.
NGOs are worth manipulating.
NGOs are worth protecting.
NGOs are worth attacking."
Given the above situations, NGOs are sometimes sources of conflict rather than relief.
3. Analysis of Phases of Conflict
Long term conflicts tend to reach different levels of severity. These phases of conflict often move in intricate cycles of peace and extreme violence; political change; seasonal change; and traditional campaigns. Any endeavour to provide relief and aid has to take into account of the phases of war for effective restructuring and infiltration of critical thresholds.
4. Analysis of Human Insecurity
Perhaps one of the most important aspects is the NGO's role to monitor conflict and devise programs according to the needs of human security within the framework of the United Nations charter. These programs should be focussed on areas where people are provided aid with the confidence that they have the right to live their lives peacefully, having economic security, food and health security, environmental and personal security; and communal and political security. These are some of the basic rights to secure living that the UNDP has identified for NGOs to work in and around conflict areas (Slim 1996).
5. Analysis of power
Conflict as mentioned earlier is the manifestation of the struggle for power or abuse of power. NGOs operating in conflict resulting from the struggle to power must understand that the dynamics involve political entities that greatly influence the working environment (El Bushra and Pisa Lopez, 1993). A combination of any kind of power struggle such as physical, economical, informational or emotional may result in political conflict. (Slim 1996).
6. Analysis of change
Once the causes and core reasons of conflict have been identified change management can be implemented. Change management here is not only limited to the operations of the NGOs or such institutions but it also involve the planning and strategizing for operating in the conflict environment. Those living within the communities must also become involved in the change program to be able to achieve desired peace situations. Depending on the gravity of the conflict situation the organization must determine the type of change, that is whether it is partial, incremental, pendulum or total change that is required for the community. (Slim 1996).
7. Analysis of conflict related behaviour
The organizations working in conflict situation must develop a program to monitor conflict and its impact on people's behaviour. As conflict escalates people's behaviour and attitudes tend to change and may result in violence even though they are not directly involved in the conflict situation. By becoming aware of the conflict impact and impression could eliminate unnecessary riotous behaviour such as aggression, fear, stress, distress, stereotyping, extremism or militant enthusiasm etc (Acland, 1990)
8. Ethnical Analysis
This aspect of conflict is subjective rather than objective. Generally humanitarian aid efforts should comply with social and political framework of the particular environment. However, it must also be carried out within the ethical constraints as well. The ethical question is imperative for determining the morality of the situation and how the community people merit aid response. (Slim 1996).
9. NGO organizational analysis
Finally the organization itself must be examined for its attitudes, skilled staffs, awareness programs, staffs attitudes towards conflict, emergency provision capabilities, as well as the flexibility to adapt core emergency strategies from head quarters to the local needs. This is critical as it means at times deviation from the original standard operating procedures devised by the international organizations like Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO). The need for flexibility is inevitable as resilience from the conflict areas is natural yet the NGOs must infiltrate reliefs without compromising its position or the local's. (Slim 1996).
Determination of Approach to Relief
Once the situation has been analyzed from different perspectives and dimensions, the next element in security management is to plan for conflict resolution. According to Sarah Collinson (2003) conflict is the result of deficit of inputs. It is concerned with people's insecurity in the environment in which they live. To determine the dimensions for providing relief aid the organization must be aware of the particular patterns of power and vulnerability before a central and efficient aid system could be set up. Often relief agencies emphasize on political analysis as the basic method of gauging the conflict environment. This is critical because the viability of the relief as well as the long term rehabilitation measures cannot be implemented without the approval of the local political institutions. Needs assessments based on food security and public health models etc. all originate from political and military approval. It must be taken into account before the economic and social aspects can be addressed at the individual and household level. Collinson (2003) is of the opinion that political economy approach to problem identification improves the NGOs understanding of the significance of the programs. She writes it could:
"- Strengthen and refine early-warning systems, contingency planning and preparedness measures, and improve the design of prevention efforts.
- Assist agencies in ensuring a principled approach to their interventions.
- Inform the negotiation of humanitarian access and the management of relations with belligerents and local institutions.
- Improve the monitoring and evaluation of humanitarian activities.
- Identify, analyse and monitor vulnerable people's needs more effectively, and coordinate responses accordingly.
- Manage security more effectively.
- Help to distinguish between 'civilians' and 'combatants', and to understand better the relationships between violence and war economies and particular individuals, groups, communities, institutions, livelihoods and humanitarian interventions.
- Distinguish between the war economy, economic violence and the economic impacts of conflict, and assess the implications for specific communities, groups and humanitarian programmes."
Similarly, she also mentions of the commodity chain analysis and livelihoods analysis techniques for identifying the power relations, governance structures and the exchange relationships within the group and at the international level. This is of great importance as it determines the depth of the economic problem; how it is associated with resources; and war's impact on these resources. Any aid approach has to be taken from the perspective of securing these resources rather than merely providing material aid without any future directions.
Like Slim (1996) Collinson (2003) is of the opinion that war often subject closing down of economy which intertwine with the people living in the areas. Examples include Senegal and Afghanistan. Provision of aid should not be focussed on coping with the economy but rather to strengthen the governance structure and to educate the people to cope with conflict.
Purpose Peacekeeping Operations Security
The primary purpose of the United Nations is to sustain peace and security for all nations of the world. Ever since its emergence in 1948, the UN has endeavoured to fulfil its mission to provide resolution to conflict in various regions of the world. During times of war the goal of the UN had been to maintain cease-fires, stabilizing situations on the ground and to resolve conflict (Voetmann 1997). After the Wars, the goal of the UN has expanded manifolds as it has become involved in settlement of conflicts of various natures. Peacekeeping operations therefore include a wide range of civilian as well as military operations for the purpose of helping nations achieve human rights, civilian police, develop elections framework, install rehabilitation and civic institutions and to reintegrate combatant into normal life. The comprehensive nature of the social, humanitarian, political, legal and military of the operations has been supported by several mechanisms within the Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) as well as its sister concerns. The multidimensional role of the DPKO not only makes it central to all conflict issues, problems, agendas and resolutions but also the target for such problems. The integral nature of the DPKO operations makes it vulnerable to the environment in which it operates subjecting its people to violence, military actions, conflict and such risks (Voetmann 1997).
Operating Procedures
For the purpose of safety and security of the NGO institutions and the UN missions, the Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) has developed guidelines and procedures for its staffs and concerned institutions. These guidelines are according to the international standards and issued from the UN headquarters. These procedures are established to provide guidance as well as contingency action plans in case of emergencies. The procedures are not meant for isolated case or situation but take into account of the multidimensional nature of conflict. Thus the DPKO security measure is an elaborate strategic plan.
The DPKO is divided into the civilian and the military components. Civilian components involve coordination of plans for development and economic reconstructions; organization of elections, functioning of public services and setting up of legal framework for human rights. On the other hand the military side include civilian policing, provision of arms for protection and security for the people ("Present Day Peacekeeping Demands..." 2004).
Like any other management organization the DPKO also follows the typical management model of planning, decision making, implementation, control and monitoring activities. Planning begins when the UN Secretariat is given a warning signal of the need of UN mission in particular area. The signal is then forward to the Department of Peace-Keeping Operations (DPKO), the Department of Humanitarian Affairs (DHA), and the Department of Political Affairs (DPA). Each of these departments share information relevant to the mission for the assessment of the critical situation and what course of action to be taken. Based on these assessments, the departments then channel its plans for further approval and decision making. The Security Council is the authorization authority that approves or disapproves of the operation requested by the Secretary General. Once the authorization is received, a detailed plan is then put together with an estimated cost structure. With the sanction of the detailed plan, the mission is installed at the emergency area with personnel requisite from the Office of Planning and Support of the DPKO (Guéhenno 2003).
In the planning phase the initial survey plays a critical role in determining the course of action for the peacekeeping operations. The survey has to take into account of the different perspectives such as troops, military assistance or civilian police as well as the other components to be integrated in the plan for short and long term implementation. In this regard Broder (2000) provides the view that the majority of the success rate of effective planning for peacekeeping operation is due to effective risk analysis. Risk analysis is critical in producing result oriented security surveys. Information based principles and framework provide subjective aspects of the operations. But for the effective and objective view of the situation, risk analysis has to be carried out from the view to control risks, design and implement security measures for civilians as well as NGO workers. Broder is of the opinion that these workers are exposed to the environment as they are responsible for implementation of the peacekeeping operational plans. Opponents may regard them as the culprit and the enemy as Broder writes (2000) The most fundamental
philosophy of risk control, design and implementation has as a basic tenet making the program as self-sufficient as possible in all matters pertaining to security. This includes the two-sided coin of risk control: (1) the protection of assets by identifying, analyzing, and prioritizing the risk; and, (2) contingency and disaster recovery planning.
Here protection of assets refers to material as well as human assets. In the context of this research protection of asset refers to the security of the workers working for UN mission organizations and such NGOs. According to the UN DPKO guidelines and principles safety and security is of the utmost importance. It is based on these principles that aid organizations promote code of good practice. For this purpose careful analysis and assessment of situations must be carried out before the unified code of practice, security management procedures and policies could be established (Guéhenno 2003).
Risk Survey
Before policies and procedures could be developed, threat assessment should be carried out initially to be incorporated in the initial program. Security and risk assessment is imperative as it would allow the NGO to prioritize the resources according to threats.
For the purpose of identifying and addressing the security challenges Koenraad van Brabant (1999) at the Overseas Development Institute presented the Security Triangle which encompasses three keys to the foundation of security practice. At IRC (International Rescue Committee) for example the security protocols must adapt to the local protocols with three elements in mind: acceptance, protection and deterrence. The idea is to develop an effective local security protocol that balance with the international standards.
1. Acceptance - softening the threat
The basic premise of developing a safety procedure is to infiltrate the local community by working towards an acceptance and support from the people which in turn grows security. Acceptance here means the consent of the combatants or the de facto authorities for the NGO to operate in the area; the community has a stake in the NGO activities therefore participates actively; the community is involved in the assessment and designing of the program; the NGO's mission is transparent and communicated to the concerned group; its activities are impartial, sensitive to political and cultural presence by giving importance to local interests; and the NGO develop goodwill with the local authorities (Martin 1999).
All the above aspects of NGO approach and activities reflect building relationship with the hostile environment and therefore minimize the risk of violence. Martin (1999) gives the example of Bosnian acceptance of NGO operations in Sarajevo.
2. Protection - hardening the target
Building protection is imperative for the NGO personnel. It involves the setting up of protection devices, materials and equipment for security purposes. Material protection building should not be the only limiting aspect of protection. Operational policies and procedures such as institutional mechanisms should also be included for clear and equitable treatment of national and international staffs. The procedures should be transparent, clearly communicated to the staff and implemented consistently. This would ensure disgruntle staff do not cause security infraction for the NGOs. Similarly, financial policies and procedures for operating activities should be clear and transparent. Vehicle operating policies; operating curfews; participation in warden system for communicating emergency messages as well as training programs for the usage of equipments all should be directed towards the safety and security of the personnel. Protection also refers to the coordinated activities which NGOs carry out to provide security to the local staffs. This means that the NGO agencies and sister concerns should be active in coordination activities through collaborative operations, integrated communications and policing activities.
3. Deterrence - posing a counter threat
The third aspect is deterrence. Deterrence refers to the relations NGOs develop with regional and international institutions. For example the relationship with diplomats to influence local authorities to promote security of the NGO interests. Deterrence for security purposes must include elements like quality and depth of relationship with diplomatic missions, United Nations and other NGO bodies (Martin 1999; Brabant 1999)
Similarly, the physical arrangement by setting up troop of guards for the safety of the NGO facilities as well as disciplining staffs in safety and security procedures also contribute to deterrence. Extensive training is required for strengthening personnel for effective security. Martin gives the example of Somalia and Bosnia whereby the inadequacy of the coalition guards have proven weak in deterrent strategies.
In practice the security triangle can be elaborate and detailed to encompass critical elements commensuration with the needs of the situation. For example in Somalia, Afghanistan, and Liberia, vehicle theft is a serious security issue as it could mean death to the NGO personnel therefore vehicles usage training and protocols are given elaborate considerations. Similarly, external threats like bribery, harassment from the host government and lack of health care programs in countries like Yugoslavia, Sudan and Afghanistan tend to compromise the existence of the NGO staffs (Martin 1999) which require well defined protocols for staffs to follow.
Security Training
Contingent to these three aspects of security assessment and guidelines Brabant (1999) is of the view that risk assessment or planning cannot be perceived as the sole security factor. Instead Brabant is of the opinion that agencies staffs and family members have been killed in the past due to their ignorance of the standard procedures. Responses to risk lack effectiveness if the concerned members are not trained for security action. For example the ICRC and the ECHO have been holding seminars on security for creating awareness. But the operational agencies itself should have internal measures for creating awareness by developing guidelines and security manuals for the field staff and managers. Review of security measures especially drilled procedures within larger organizations is imperative in building its security strengths and ensures its members' protection. Currently the pattern of response to risk is differentiated as the UN agencies such as the UNHCR and WFP are being trained by the UNSECOORD in New York for its field workers. Other NGO training providers include RedR in the UK, Bioforce of France, CINFO in Switzerland and Kontakt der Kontinenten in the Netherlands. There is no common platform or standards upon which these organizations are training for clarifying the "minimum requirements in terms of awareness, knowledge and skill with regard to security issues for aid workers." (Brabant 1999). One of the reasons for this disparity is that the organizations are operating in different parts of the world originating from different places. Secondly the disconnected initiatives by these organizations have been focussed on the individual needs for active support rather than a collaborative action from the aiding country. Training of aid workers vary from the need of the situation rather than a standard procedure. For example security training refers to the protection against violence in a volatile environment. Yet only a few groups are being trained for working in violent environment while the rest of the aid workers are operating under guidance of these trained individuals without having first hand knowledge how to make decisions to deal with emergency situations. One of the reasons for this gap in training is due to the lack of trainers, courses and time for security training of local staffs. Local people especially are often excluded from security training or provision of protection. Instead they are given training manuals to read yet they are the most vulnerable as Brabant (1999) emphasizes training manuals are not trainings.
Another reason for the discrepancy in the standards of security measures is that there are a number of private firms providing security training to NGOs. The understanding of specific requirements and organizational culture for aid agencies differ from private firms therefore these private trainers prove inadequate in meeting the needs of aid agencies' security. What NGO aid organizations really need is an international network to join them together and identify the gaps by exchanging and learning good practices.
DPKO standards
To a certain extent the Department of Peacekeeping Operations have been able to establish certain standardized procedures for security and safety of its personnel deployed in the field. Through collaboration with the Office of the United Nations Security Coordinator (UNSECOORD) and other organizations within its network it has been able to minimize the risks faced by mission personnel. The basis for the security management at the DPKO is the "security and protection of UN staff members, their spouses, dependants, property and the property of the Organization rests with the host government." (Chapter 11, Peacekeeping Best Practices). According to the DPKO guidelines every host government is responsible for the persons and property and maintaining order within its jurisdiction. A government that is hosting the UN body has to include peacekeeping operation to protect UN personnel and property. It must maintain "status-of-forces agreement (SOFA) or the status-of-mission agreement (SOMA)." These mandates are not always fulfilled for a variety of reasons which result in UN personnel casualties in hostile environment. For this reason the General Assembly in 9 December 1994 included the Convention on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel which ensure security for persons engaged or deployed by the Secretary-General of the United Nations as members of the military, police or civilian components of a United Nations operation; and other officials and experts on mission of the United Nations or its specialized agencies . . . who are present in an official capacity in the area where a United Nations operation is being conducted. (Chapter 11, Peacekeeping Best Practices).
For administrative purposes the UN has formulated guidelines and procedures for security management in its United Nations Field Security Handbook. This book is to help orient the civilian personnel engaged in normal peace time activity and cannot protect themselves in violent situations. In conflict areas peacekeepers must follow the standard operating procedures outlined in the Security Handbook if they are under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Special Representative of the Secretary General or the Force Commander or Chief of Staff. The UNSECOORD is responsible for provision of technical expertise in the areas of:
" Providing advice and guidance on the security and protection of UN personnel at every duty station;
Providing security advice to Headquarters and the field;
Conducting security assessment missions;
Assisting with mission start-up;
Managing hostage incidents;
Training designated officials, security management teams and officers and area security coordinators and wardens;
Training in security awareness for peacekeeping personnel;
Screening security officer candidates;
Reviewing mission security plans;
Providing insurance coverage against malicious acts; and
Providing support for stress management." (Chapter 11, Peacekeeping Best Practices).
Furthermore the UNSECOORD is responsible for advising the DPKO on security arrangements for the civilian staffs, the operational requirements as well as assessment of risks in the environment. It is also responsible for overseeing the security planning preparation such as coordinating with UN and external partners and local authorities; conducting assessment of general security situation, emergency communications network and management of guard force for the protection of the premises (Chapter 11, Peacekeeping Best Practices).
Despite the above guidelines, within the UN security management system loopholes exist. UNSECOORD which is responsible for deploying these measures is not authorized to address many of the challenges of peacekeeping security management such as security planning for military, civilian police and civilian personnel. This is usually pre-arranged by the Head of Mission. Hence, security plans are primary management tool for security preparedness for all duty stations. Individuals are responsible for certain measures in emergency situations including military confrontations, dealing with internal disorder and natural disasters. They are also responsible for communication, supplies, creating safe havens for victims etc. The coordination procedures and guidelines are established through the SMT to facilitate security management. The Head of Mission in away act as the head to all the wardens and deputy wardens of the specific geographical zone where conflict and emergency situations are prevalent. Even military and civilian police are to follow the doctrine and training patterns for carrying out defensive actions. Peacekeeping contingent plans therefore are defined by the rules of engagement tailored to specific mission and situation on the ground (Chapter 11, Peacekeeping Best Practices).
Emergency Preparedness
More than a decade ago peacekeeping personnel had been subjected to extreme violent conditions resulting in injuries and death. After the Brahmi Report peacekeeping operations took a new turn in operations to meet the challenges of volatile and conflict environment around the world. Staffs of the DPKO had been trained to focus on rapid deployment, trained to face challenges of a varied nature and to coordinate with regional organizations. Today according to the Under Secretary General Jean Marie Guehenno these measures have to change yet again. The Millennium Declaration to be held in September 2005 would address some of the limitations that previous measures had and to change the capacity of the UN system.
Today the DPKO has 17 operations always indispensable to emergency situations, equipped with flexible operational procedures. "Each operation mounted faced unique political, economic, social and security challenges, with different mandates and a different array of partners and spoilers. Also, the complexity of post-conflict transitions meant that operations must advance concurrently on many tracks -- political, humanitarian, development, human rights and security -- often in high-risk environments." Yet as the operating environment vary from geographical region to region such as the case of Afghanistan and the Democratic Republic of Congo, the UN is realizing the limitation of its measures. The processes not only lack capabilities but it is also in need of reintegration to suit the needs of the international community to sustain peace. Troops in prolong conflict area such as Sierra Leone and Timore-Leste are facing difficulties in handling the operations as it increased in complexities. UN aid workers are now not only handling social and political conflict but also military. With each change in the dimension of the conflict the personnel are required to be familiar with the new procedures, approaches to risk management and the strategies to be deployed in the event of an outbreak. ("Present Day Peacekeeping Demands..." 2004).
Similarly, in the case of civilian police requirements, the missions need training to sustain law enforcement institutions to support the workers as well as the local authorities. The more mature the civilian police become in an area, the more specialized skills they need for counteracting the every day problems. Thus as the Under Secretary General realizes "security could not be dissociated from operational activities and must form an integral part of mandate implementation, with information-sharing as the key." ("Present Day Peacekeeping Demands..." 2004).
According to the People in Aid Policy Pot document despite the measures taken by the aid organizations such as the United Nations along with ICRC, Care, Oxfam, World Vision etc. security provisions lack effectiveness for the insecure environment where aid workers operate. Many large NGOs have started training programs and create internal policies and practices to ensure security preparedness. The United Nations have substantially improved its staff security provisions with the support of the UNSECOORD ("Present Day Peacekeeping Demands..." 2004).
Other measures include making security training courses and programs widely available to all concerned aid organizations. They are also encouraged to tailor the training programs to their needs. For example in the UK and Europe the RedR has made its learning materials freely available to international NGO community. Similarly the UN's agencies such as ICRC, World Vision and CARE have also created programs designed for its specific aid workers at a small fee ("Present Day Peacekeeping Demands..." 2004). Yet despite these measures, aid workers are apparently not equipped in dealing with insecure environments. One of the reasons is that the local staffs are not trained in emergency trainings. secondly research findings indicate that the emergency risks are associated with different groups of workers. For example emergency relief work in war zones would be subjected to more risks than others working in comparatively less violent environment. However, the fact remains that humanitarian work in any kind of violent environment are at risk to injury and death, therefore they must be prepared with the necessarily skills and knowledge to combat risks. Security preparedness according to the People in Aid document contains three interdependent aspects namely:
Organisational commitment
Individual commitment
Risk Assessment
Organizational commitment refers to the improvement in security for the staff to ensure the management has the capacity to examine security risks and provide adequate resources to the staff for their safety and security. This involves intentional planning and financial expenditure; and senior staff to take the imitative in demonstrating personal security behaviour to model risk reducing practices (People in Aid 2003).
Similarly, individual assessment refers to the development of individual attitudes and behaviour towards best practices of safety and security. The staff should not rely on the organization entirely for security. Instead they should take initiatives in following the programs established for them and assist the organization in maintaining a secure working environment.
Risk assessment refers to both the organizational and individual context as it means addressing the needs and risks implied on both national and international staff. Risk assessment should not be isolated or exclusive to the international staff but rather according to the degree of exposure these staffs are faced with in their every day activities. The causes of risks, the mode of operations, the environment as well as the resources available for them to combat risks should be analyzed before programs are designed and develop for their training and protection.
Ultimately the purpose of security preparedness is gauged by the ability of the staff and organization to survive in the environment in which they operate. The challenge is furthered by the competition in securing funds through skilled personnel, accountability and credibility. The more secure and adequately equipped the aid organization, the more funds it would generate from donors and respect from the communities they assists.
Among the best practices, People in Aid Code of Good Practice are given high credits for its seven principles to health, safety and security. The framework established has been designed to address and integrate into the human resources policies and practices in aid organizations. Among the seven principles, Principle 7 has the most significance as it addresses the strategy and the rationale behind staff security and well being:
People In Aid Code of Good Practice
Principle 7 Health, Safety and Security
"The security, good health and safety of our staff are a prime responsibility of our organisation.
We recognise that the work of relief and development agencies often places great demands on staff in conditions of complexity and risk. We have a duty of care to ensure the physical and emotional well-being of our staff before, during and on completion of their period of work with us.
Indicators:
1. Written policies are available to staff on security, individual health, care and support, health and safety.
2. Programme plans include written assessment of security, travel and health risks specific to the country or region, reviewed at appropriate intervals.
3. Before an international assignment all staff receives health clearance. In addition they and accompanying dependents receive verbal and written briefing on all risks relevant to the role to be undertaken, including insurance. Agency obligations and individual responsibilities in relation to possible risks are clearly communicated to staff. Briefings are updated when new equipment, procedures or risks are identified.
4. Security plans, with evacuation procedures, are reviewed regularly.
5. Records are maintained of work-related injuries, sickness, accidents and fatalities, and are monitored to help assess and reduce future risk to staff.
6. Work plans do not require more hours work than are set out in individual contracts. Time off and leave periods, based on written policies, are mandatory.
7. All staff has a debriefing or exit interview at the end of any contract or assignment. Health checks, personal counselling and careers advice are available. Managers are trained to ensure these services are provided.
8. In the case of staff on emergency rosters, managers should ensure that health clearance, immunisations and procedures for obtaining the correct prophylaxes and other essential supplies are arranged well in advance." (People in Aid 2003).
The above literature thus outlines that security management in aid organizations whether the UN or other NGOs is critical for the safety and security of the staff who work in conflict environment. The violent nature of the environment in which they operate not only mandate that they be equipped with local knowledge but also be prepared for emergency situations including the local staffs.
Research Methods
Any kind of social or political research involves the decision to choose between qualitative and quantitative method of research. The choice of research ensures the accuracy of the results of research for which reason researchers are particular about the technique they adopt. Before the choice could be made, it is important that the researcher understands what is meant by qualitative and quantitative method.
According to Michael D. Myers (1997) quantitative research refers to methods that include surveys, laboratory experiments, formal methods and numerical techniques of research. Qualitative on the other hand enables researchers to make observation, distinguish behavioural patterns and understand the social and cultural contexts of subjects. Hence, the qualitative method is usually subjective rather than objective as it takes into account the point of views of the participants, social institutions and the textual data.
The choice of quantitative and qualitative should be based on the research epistemology and how it relates to the research outcome. Epistemology refers to the assumption of knowledge and how it can be obtained. In this context experts such as Guba and Lincoln (1994) suggest that qualitative approach provide the positivism, critical theory and constructivism to research. It helps the researcher to interpret, develop critical analysis and classify the problem in its distinctive genre. Thus Myers writes (1997) "It follows from this that the choice of a specific qualitative research method (such as the case study method) is independent of the underlying philosophical position adopted. For example, case study research can be positivist, interpretive, or critical, just as action research can be positivist, interpretive or critical."
Depending on the topic of research the particular research strategy could be adopted for research design and data collection. The choice of the research method greatly influences the kind of data collected, its validity and results. For example action research involves the study of problematic situation and the goals of the research question to develop mutually acceptable ethical framework.
Alternatively, case study method involves the use of analysis, description of situations and discussion of the problem area. Yin (2002) defines this method as: "A case study is an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident" (Yin 2002).
Then there is the ethnography method that analyzes the social and cultural anthropology of the population being researched. This method seeks to study the population from the social and cultural context (Schostak 2003).
But perhaps more important among the methods of qualitative research is the interview methods and analysis which takes into account of personal experiences as data and analyze it based on the theoretical framework developed from past scholars (Schostak 2003).
Researchers like Philip Mayring have observed in this study that the best approach to research is through the combination of qualitative and quantitative methods. Most researchers prefer this combination because any one of the method would not actually provide accurate answer to the hypothesis questions. An integrative approach not only enables the researcher in interpreting the quantitative data but also enable him/her to subjectively study the causes and theories behind the problem studied.
On the other hand Harald Witt cautions researchers from using the combination method lest the researcher discriminate one data form over the other. He points out that the differences between the quantitative and qualitative research methods are designed for different research goals. Each of the methods can only accommodate particular goals for analysis and study. Therefore a combination method does not necessarily mean that the researcher would be able to acquire the desired results from both methods. In fact the inter relations created by the combination method might give results that may not be what the researcher is looking for.
Given these views, this researcher has adopted the qualitative research as the researcher feels that the UN procedures, principles and guidelines are all subjective. Any adaptation, implementation and change in the policies and procedures would have to take into account of the people using it, the effectiveness of its usage and outcome. These are dependent on the conflict environment and the varying needs of the situation. All of these instances require subjective critical analysis rather than quantifiable data. What quantitative data collection would do is help the researcher in confirming the validity of the trainings, security management, policies and procedures adopted by aid organizations. The quantitative data could be in the form of surveys of the personnel working in different localities of conflict areas or it could be a small sampling survey of a particular organization. Whatever the result, it would aid the researcher in understanding the existing framework and for proposing a new one.
Findings and analysis
In the process of aid provision and relief activities, humanitarian workers have been observed to be subjected to violence as well as deaths. According to the People in Aid Policy document (2003), safety and security of personnel is the responsibility of all level of management. Ultimately, personal safety and organizational security lead to community safety. Safe working environment ensures workers are protected from violence prevalent in conflict environment. Humanitarian work according to People in Aid (2003) requires significant courage of highly skilled individuals willing to venture into some of the most inhospitable environments. To maintain their safety means devising elaborate strategic plans for their security.
Security in today's conflict filled environment means prevention from fatalities resulting from accidents, intentional violence against aid members and use of weaponry against these workers. Randolph Martin (1999) in his article "NGO Field Security" notes the number of humanitarian workers subject to hostage taking, assassination, mine explosions, robbery and health threats have increased over the decades. Some of the reasons include:
a. "increase in the number of duration of conflicts
b. absence of rules of conduct
c. Impunity of the NGOs due to the lack of communal or diplomatic links with the combatants
d. Erosion of neutrality as NGOs become part of the population displacement process
e. NGO competition and culture due to the lack of professional development and standard best practices in the field of security." (Martin 1999)
Safety and security have become issues of concern as it not only prevent and protect the NGO workers from illnesses and accidents as well as acts of violence.
The existing security measures being taken around the world by aid organizations including the DPKO are inadequate as they are redundant in the dynamic conflict environment. From the literature review it has been observed that any kind of measure for addressing staff risks needs to analyze the security and safety dimensions from all perspectives. The most fundamental of which have been outlined by Slim (1996) including the analysis of nature of conflict, causes, impact, extent and phase, power, insecurity, human behaviours, and the organizational commitment etc. These aspects of conflict assessment need to be incorporated in the process of assessment before the accurate and effective strategies can be devised for implementation.
Apart of the assessment process it has also been observed that conflict vary from region to region and area to area. A single platform designed for the generalized implementation of security plans cannot be expected to address all kinds of risks. Risks resulting from conflict reflect the nature and causes of conflict. The level of risks involved in working in a sensitive environment depends on the aid workers' exposure to risks, and the natural environment. Safety measures are often required when the problems of sanitation, disease and procedures for carrying out designated tasks are involved. On the other hand security issues arise when activities are influenced by the intentional violence, explosions and killings that expose the aid workers to injuries or fatalities. These aspects of risks offer the insight that risk assessment like conflict analysis is not a one time process. Its dynamic nature require authorities and concerned aid organizations such as the UN and other agencies to constantly engage in risk assessment to integrate into existing plans and strategies.
On the basis of risk assessment and conflict evaluation head quarters devise strategies for security management. Security management is not an isolated measure designed for the general environment. Instead, security management should focus on the uniqueness of the situation, the nature of risks and conflict and the impact on the aid workers. The kind of security management incorporated in aid organizations has to be particular to address the requirements of the situation rather than based on general standard procedures. As the above study imply, each emergency situation has its own phase of conflict level, degree of associated risks and the level of security required. A security operational plan should be based on these contingencies to serve the purpose of providing security to the aid workers.
In this context Brabant (1999) has provided the security triangle which contains the three kinds of measures for the identification and implementation of security management. The measures include acceptance, protection and deterrence. Brabant's approach to security identification measure neatly categorizes the kind of action plan that should be devised and implemented tailored to the need of the situation.
The UN's DPKO in its endeavour to encompass all kinds of situations has devised SOPs for smooth operations. The system is centralized whereby all decisions for responding to emergency situations take place at the UN head office. Once the decision is made, approved and detailed, it is then channelled to operational level for implementation. The process takes a long time as it has to go through several rounds of approval depending on the emergency call as it depend on theavailability of skilled resources, equipment, financial need, and access to the area concerned. The UN's SOP is effective on one hand because it addresses different perspectives and covers all aspects before implementation. Training for skilled staffs, training them for dealing with security operations and training other staffs all require extensive planning. On the other hand, the detailed planning also means that it takes time for the UN to respond to emergency situations as its SOPs are not flexible. The need for flexibility in emergency situations cannot be emphasized enough by scholars and practitioners alike as most of the staffs working in the conflict environment are subject to intentional violence, curfews, acts of aggression and harassment of all kinds. there is a dire need for emergency responsive plans as and when needed. For this purpose the DPKO has devised the minimum operational security standards (MOSS).
The integration of the MOSS policy is aimed at developing minimal essential security practices to support UN staff. The MOSS is a system wide initiative that handled by the UNSECOORD (Moss Instructions for Implementation 2005). The instructions provide guidance to the development and implementation procedures specific to countries where the missions are based. It includes the general structure of accountability for all management level personnel within and outside the organization. The variation in the baseline MOSS has been developed with the view to provide minimum standards for gauging equipment, structures and procedures required at the mission office in specific country. The Country Team is responsible for the arrangement of financial and resources for security management such as the acquisition of equipments, adoption of insurance policy and compliance with the local authority. There are five steps in the development of country specific MOSS which include the conduction of threat assessment; comparing the UN's current security measures against those required by the baseline MOSS; the identification of additional measures above the requirements of MOSS; documentation and review of the requirements; and authorization for implementation of country specific MOSS. The implementation of the country specific MOSS is carried out in phases rapidly one after the other to meet the urgency of the situation.
The MOSS compliance structure serves to a certain extent the overall need of the emergency situation. However, it must also be noted that emergency situations are multidimensional and must be addressed from all angles. John J. Fay in his book Contemporary Security Management (2002) is of the opinion that security operations should be drilled into the workers as well. In crisis management teamwork is of the utmost importance for responding to violent situations or reacting to risk exposures. All related employees from the departmental managers to the supervisors and front line employees all should be aware of MOSS, how to initiate and carry it out and when to start the next phase. Fay believes that unless employees are involved in the process of security management they would not be consistent in best practice. Fay's view point is similar to Brabant (1999).
Before the workers however, security professionals in the organizations must be trained about the intricacies of legal aspects as well as the local laws for aid worker's conduct. Any plans or strategies must follow these laws. One of the most difficult situations that NGOs and aid organizations face is that the SOPs, aid strategies and plans conflict with the local interests. As studied earlier, conflict in interest, culture, traditions, ideology etc. all could proliferate violence. Thus the aid workers become a source of violence rather than relief. In such cases they should be trained to the indicators that would compromise their legal position and resulting in conflict. Once established, employees should also be trained to follow SOPs and deter them from negligence. Often the effectiveness of emergency situations is compromised not because of the lack of established SOPs but negligence from the staffs which may result in injury, litigation and even fatalities. Negligence therefore could be assessed and attributed according to its directness, punitive, and nominal nature. These measures must be carried out by the security managers to ensure that the aid workers do not work against the interests of the local people.
Measures as those established by the DPKO MOSS may form the minimum procedures and the framework for additional security action plans. Each organization that operate at the various mission and host country may tailor it according to the law, local authority, culture, traditions, ideology and political climate. Not only need this but it also to gauge the phase of the emergency situation in which they working in to be able to initiate the kind of strategies and plans designed for the phase accordingly. Consequently, emergency responsiveness is not an individual effort but rather a collaborative one.
Conclusion
Given the many situations studied above of the different aid organizations, emergency response and security measures of these organizations somewhat address the need of the aid workers for ensuring their safety and security. They all follow some form of SOPs for security operations in their organizations because it is mandatory to their operations. However, as the literature review indicates most of these measures are ad hoc, and differ from each other and at times redundant in nature. There is not standard procedure that all follow except for the UN DPKO MOSS which acts as the platform for following the minimum requirements. The MOSS act as the central SOP acceptable for ensuring security in aid organizations and agencies. But experts are of the opinion that the MOSS or any such standard procedure is not enough to deal with emergency situations. One of the reasons they offer is that the minimum standards for any aid organization or conflict situation should be tailored to their need and unique situation rather than following a generalized SOP. Most of the time the aid organizations follow SOPs that is redundant because they do not meet the requirements of the hour. Emergency preparedness therefore is compromised. They suggest that the organizations concerned should establish their own needs and tailor it to the designated SOPs sent from the head office. As in the case of the UN missions, agencies follow the DPKO MOSS as the minimum operating procedure but they tailor it to country specific MOSS based on the local authorities and law. To take this structure one step ahead, MOSS should also address the specific conflict situation. This is critical especially for conflict that is long term and requires niche kind of security operations. Not all existing country specific MOSS meet the need of the aid workers to carry out their designated duties or prevent them from injuries or fatalities. For this reason it is imperative that the MOSS should be unified in standards as well as procedures for all aid organizations. It should not be isolated because some private firms or specific organizations have designed it to suit the need of their own legal framework. At the essence of any MOSS therefore would be the contingency plan to tailor to the local environment to be able to address the core security needs of the specific group of aid workers. The contingency plans must be designed to encompass all perspectives of work, activities, conduct and response to emergency situations. Not only should this but it also integrate management practice such as teamwork, communication, control and leadership. To make all of these measures effective, it is imperative that organizations regularly carry out drills so that workers whether local or foreign are well versed with the MOSS procedures. They should be allowed to participate in the emergency planning phase as well as implementation in order to understand their role in carrying out the SOPs effectively and efficiently.
To sum up, for any organization to effectively and efficiently respond to conflict situation and ensure a secure work environment for aid workers, it must incorporate MOSS drilled regularly. The MOSS should be a well defined plan that takes into account of all aspects of the conflict environment in which the organization is operating, the worker's needs, the degree of acceptance from the locals and the support of the local authority. There is no doubt that the head office of any aid organization should be aware of the emergency situation but it should leave some flexibility to the local aid agency to alter the MOSS and strategic curity plan according to the need of the hour. And everyone within the organization should be aware of these SOPs.
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