Free Marketing Essays - This Literature Review Aims To Give A Comprehensive Account Of The Various Theories
This literature review aims to give a comprehensive account of the various theories which are able to provide frameworks for answering research questions relating to the effect on consumer behaviour by using celebrities in advertising and endorsing fashion products. Theories are selected within this review as those which constitute a core of consumer behaviour theory in relation to marketing principles. In particular literature is also reviewed which examines specifically the influence of celebrities in advertising products.
One way of seeing marketing is to see it as the achievement of corporate goals through anticipating, meeting and satisfying customer needs. It is unsurprising then that marketers conduct consumer behaviour research. Research along these lines is in order to understand their target customers better than competitors and as a result allow strategic marketing mixes work more effectively for companies, (Jobber, 2001). Studies suggest that the cost of attracting new customers is much higher than retaining existing ones for a company thus firms must both seek to build up efficient and effective communication with existing consumers as well as attract potential customers through its marketing mix. As a result 'below-the-line' promotion models have established themselves as a major component of marketing mixes with advertising historically being the dominant communication tool for companies with customers, (Lanman, 2003).
In terms of the fashion business celebrity endorsement is often used in advertising fashion goods since fashion items rely on strong brand images from a cultural perspective. In this celebrities then are considered to be useful in expressing the fashion idea to customers in a direct way, (Bohdanowicz & Clamp, 1994). However as Solomon (2003) argues consumer behaviour is dynamic which means the entire purchasing decision process of customers is complex. It will be influenced by factors such as reference groups and other social effects as well as the impacts of local cultural factors. It is thus important for marketers to endure consumer research and analysis to keep abreast of important trends and evaluate these factors. Due to the characteristics related to fashion product purchasing processes the review of literature here is focused on individual buyer behaviour in relation to celebrity advertising.
Consumer purchasing process+ motivation
Consumers as individuals generally purchasing products or services for personal consumption for his/her own use, household or a gift means they are identified as end users. Blackwell, Miniard and Engel (2000) define the initial step in the decision-making process as need recognition in terms of emotional and psychological needs pertinent to the consumer. However the extent to which the consumer will seek to resolve the problem of need deficiency depends on the relative importance of the problem and the difference between the current and desired situation. If problem recognition is sufficiently strong then information search and evaluation of alternatives are two possible further stages in the process. Motivation can be said then to occur when a need is strong that the consumer wishes to satisfy, (Foxall, Goldsmith & Brown, 1998). It is obvious as such that a series of stages will be passed through before the final decision is made whether to purchase or not in making a brand choice during this buying process.
This is to say that branding strategies used by fashion retailers should consider and be aware of elements which might have an effect on an individual's motivation in terms of need fulfilment in buying fashion products during the initial stages of the purchasing process. Particularly worth considering is the observation that fashion goods are linked generally with social status, feelings of self-esteem and changing social forces in the sense that fashion embraces not only the desire to imitate others but also is a mean of expressing individual personality, (Entwistle, 2000). One determinant of the degree to which customers evaluate a brand is the level of involvement with high involvement meaning extensive evaluation, (Hawkins, Best and Coney, 1989). Price is often seen as a primary indicator of involvement level simply because people spend more time searching for information and comparing prices and for brand label fashion products which are often expensive luxury products high levels of involvement by consumers is a feature. However Schiffman and Kanuk (2004) contend that customer satisfaction relies on the product or service matching his/her expectations which can be seen as comparing actual experience after use with the expectation of use before the purchase.
It has been argued that each person may assume a variety of roles in the decision-making process which are defined as initiator, influencer, decider, buyer and user, (Jobber, 2001). In the context of purchasing fashion products women are seen as the largest consumer group, (Domosh, 1996). Men however are certainly involved in fashion product buying activities yet women's involvement is perceived as being more complex and more meaningful for marketers in terms of purchasing power. Since the mid-19th century women have been targeted as consumers of fashion products. Abelson (1989) indeed claims that shopping became a daily ritual for middle-class women in shaping their social and economic activities of the time. More recently due to changing roles for women in social and economic life in terms of less 'free' time due to increased participation in the workforce has been a predominant factor influencing women's shopping habits. As a result their demands for fashion, music and sport goods have increased due to increased economic status with buying fashion products being a typically medium to high involvement activity both due to price, social and cultural factors.
It is unsurprising to note that fashion retailers and manufacturers pursue branding strategies by using reference group influences for example celebrities to create certain fashion images for women, (Byrne, Whitehead & Breen, 2003). Technology especially the development of the Internet has freed up time for women for those who make use of internet shopping models and increased internationalisation within the fashion industry has increased access to a more globally diverse selection of products. Matching these trends consumers have become more sophisticated in terms of the complexity of techniques employed during the information searching stage such as for example making use of the Internet to seek cheaper alternatives for purchasing brand products. Linked to this research has demonstrated that the proportion of older people has increased and will continue to reflecting demographic trends in western countries and this greying of the population is changing the nature of household consumption, (Frenie, J., Fernie, S. & Moore, 2003). In terms of fashion products older consumers may be more price aware and more independent in determining their style yet may still seek security in need fulfilment on the basis of reference group values.
The effects though of reference groups in affecting older people's purchasing of fashion products remains unclear since an important feature of imitation is that its effectiveness decreases with an increased age of the target audience. Research has shown that imitation is more effective when targeted at young adults and with poor results for older adults with as a result the attention of marketers who seek to build brand image by using celebrities being on younger generations, (Keller, 1998). Furthermore young people have now become consumers much earlier compared to previous generations, which is to say they are mature customers at an earlier stage as well as more fashion sensitive. As a result fashion product marketers have sought to maximize the effectiveness of advertising campaigns aiming at ages 15 and over. The psychological outputs of this process are significant in examining the effectiveness of the use of celebrity in advertising fashion products in having an impact on creating pre-purchase motivation and changes in customer perception of brand images.
Learning Theory
Psychological research has developed and proposed a number of theories modelling individual learning behaviour. In general due to varied perceptual processes people pick up different types and pieces of information from everyday experience meaning in essence that learning styles and behaviours can vary greatly. Therefore it is important to briefly review the three key perspectives on learning within psychology, these being behaviourist, cognitive and humanist approaches, (Butler & McManus, 2000).The two main theories dealing with human learning are Behavioural Learning and Social Learning. A brief synopsis of the two is that social learning theory emphasises the importance of observing and modelling the performance of others (Mowen & Minor, 2003), behaviourists believe that learning can be defined as the relatively permanent change in actions as a result of experience or practice, (Huitt & Hummel, 1998).
According to Myers (1995), individual learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism's behaviour due to experience. Thus behavioural learning perspectives are based on contiguity, classical conditioning and instrumental conditioning assumptions, (Schiffman & Knuk, 2004). In other words, human behaviour as well as individual learning is the product of experience within physical and social environments which determines future behaviour on the basis of expected outcomes, (Myers, 1995; Butler & McManus, 2000). Additionally according to behaviourists consumers can only learn from their own experiences, (Schiffman & Knuk, 2004). The most basic representation of behaviourist learning theory is that of conditioning which was first explored by Pavlov who conducted experiments with dogs. Pavlov argues that unconditioned stimuli are linked with automatic responses which are not learned but are as a result of biological processes. In contrast only stimuli and responses which are learned can be conditioned (Myers, 1995; Stewart, 1999). The main contribution of the classic conditioning model is the determination of the relationship between conditioned motivations and conditioned responses.
Building on Pavlov a second model investigated by Skinner focused on associations between operant behaviour and controllable behaviour, (Myers, 1995). This theory sought to explain and investigate the key elements of controlling what people learn and suggests that if outcomes are pleasant then behaviour will be repeated. One example of how this might apply to fashion products is that a consumer might experience being told he/she looks beautiful as a result of using a particular fashion product and if such peer recognition is a positive experience for the individual and following this model we would expect to see the behaviour repeated. However while behaviourists offer strong insights into particular aspects of human learning and behaviour it is possible to argue that not all of the complexities of consumer behaviour can be modelled using these theories. This is arguably because they tend to focus on visible behaviour rather than examining the subjective experiences, emotions and thoughts of consumers involved in purchasing, (Mackintosh, 1983).
Social learning theory which derived from cognitive learning approaches moved beyond the implications of behaviourist learning theories in affirming the role of internal (cognitive) processes in individual learning processes but also matching these with a concern for extrinsic influences on learning behaviour. Baudura introduced the notion of imitation and modelling as part of the learning process which demonstrated that people learn things through observation and imitation of others, (Mayers, 1995). Social learning theory incorporated cognitive processes into the learning process in response to behaviourist theory yet it is fair to say that cognitive theory does not necessarily contradict behaviourist theory. Cognitive approaches emphasise the key role of cognition in terms of the concepts of signal and latent learning. The Social Learning perspective in contrast allows for vicarious learning which is obtained by watching others enjoy or suffer good or bad consequences for their actions, (Stephens, 2003). This is to say that the theory argues that most human behaviour is learned observationally through modelling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviours are to be performed and this coded information serves as a guide for later action, (Stephens, 2003). As an example children will promptly imitate behaviour exhibited by an adult model, (Solomon, 2003). Social learning by imitation is not merely a mechanism by which children acquire cultural behaviours but has a significant influence throughout adulthood, (Hurley and Chater, 2005). Additionally the models that may be observed and imitated include family members as well as celebrities that may be viewed in advertising suggesting the importance of reference and peers groups in terms of imitation and modelling perceived behaviours.
Cultural Influences on Consumer Behaviour
Drawing on social learning theory then culture can be seen as a significant part of the social influences that have an impact on consumers. Cultural influences can represent effects that are imposed on a consumer by other individuals in society which is a complex whole that includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by people as members of the same society over time, (Ueltschy & Krampf, 2001). For example when the images, concepts and signals of celebrities advertised by media are accepted by the general public they tend in turn to be symptomatic of a particular fashion culture (Mowen & Minor, 2003). Secondly humans are inherently social animals and can be said to acquire a rich body of information from others by teaching, imitation, and other forms of social learning. According to Solomon, Bamossy and Askegaard (2002) the desire to 'fit in' through identifying desirable people in terms of individuals and groups are the primary motivation for purchasing behaviour in relation to fashion and other social status products.
In response to these influences on an individual a relevant group called a reference group is often chosen by a person as a standard to compare to others in a society which has a significant relevance for an individual's evaluation and behaviour of themselves, (Cohen & Golden, 1972; Mowen & Minor, 2003). The forms of reference group influences are defined as informational influences such as the experiences of family members, utilitarian influences where the decision to purchase a special brand is affected by the preferences of people in terms of benefits and value-expressive influences where the individual feels the purchase of a particular brand will enhance the image the preferred people possess, (Solomon, Bamossy and Askegaard, 2002). In addition recent research carried out on the impact of celebrity endorsement in advertising fashion products suggests that both behaviour and cognitive responses happen in this context, (Till, 1998). It hence is vital to mention that the use of celebrities which is often regarded as a reference group to be imitated by people is not a new phenomenon however the extent to which they are used in terms of different forms of effects on the preference of fashion product requires further study due to changing environments and cultural factors.
It is fair to say that the reference group influences are not all equally powerful but it is suggested that they are significantly important in advertising fashion products, (Till, 1998).As a result imitation which is a topic within cognitive science and neuroscience disciplines originating from studies about imitative behavioural syndromes in adults is currently a topic of intense and growing interest for the social psychological sciences and one also for marketers, (Hurley and Chater, 2005). As Foxall et al (1998) argues humans learn what to desire by taking other people as models to imitate. In addition a popular and supported rule of imitation is to 'imitate the best' which simply suggests that people choose as a guidance reference groups which are perceived to be successful and imitate their behaviours which are further perceived as making them successful. From a marketing perspective the observation that approximately 20% of commercials use some type of endorsement gives credence to the view that such theories inform marketing approaches, (Bradley, 1996).
Personality and Consumer Behaviour
In relation to Entwistle's (2000) argument discussed above fashion embraces not only the desire to imitate others but to express individuality which is often done in relation to a particular social class identity. This is to say that physical appearance has become an important tool in gaining or showing membership of a social group. However personality has probably provided the most consistent results and the greatest promise of application to the needs of fashion business firms in having a fundamental role in understanding consumer behaviour, (Desmond, 2003). From a sociological point of view personality as social character focuses on the identification and classification of individuals. At this stage the implication of reference groups can be seen as the effect of opinion leadership acting as an expert power in shaping consumer's attitudes towards fashion products where there is a willingness of individuals to confirm to the commonality of the social group. At the same time people seek to be unique but the degree of uniqueness depends on the perceived and actual social status price in the form of other members of the groups' criticisms and possible rejection, (Asch, 1955; Schiffman & Knuk, 2004). Therefore the tendency to look for expert power in sharing special knowledge gives individuals guides in adjusting their behaviour. For example members of 'punk' or 'goth' social groupings generally use musicians as models for those who wish to match themselves with and integrate into these sub-cultural groups.
Essentially personality reflects a tendency to concentrate on one's inner psychological characteristics in terms of personal thoughts, feeling and motives, (Solomon, Bamossy & Askegaard, 2002). In other words personality is consistent and for that reason it can be argued people will buy products that are able to contribute to their personality and their sense of fulfilling their personality set goals. This is why the stimuli of celebrities in motivation towards purchasing products might decline when they evince a negative response to an individuals' self-concept. According to Solomon (2003) one's self concept is made up of a actual self and an ideal self, which is based on self-esteem, self-consciousness and self-image which would suggest that celebrities who match with personality may have significant effects on motivation towards purchasing particular fashion products.
The actual self reflects how the individual actually is although the consumer may not be aware of that reality. In contrast the ideal self reflects a self that a person would like to be or have but does not in fact possess, (Solomon, Bamossy & Askegaard, 2002). Consequently young people for example seek their own identities yet do so by imitating celebrities who are seen as the standards of attractiveness and thus they like to shape their own self-images in imitating what are perceived social and cultural references for success. The key point here is to keep in mind is that self-concept also refers to a typical concern with one's self as a social object and is linked with the standards or expectations as evaluated by others to a great degree, (Solomon, Bamossy & Askegaard, 2002). Thus people will generally choose what are perceived to be the 'right' products in terms of their particular social reference groups with one key means arguably being following opinion leadership groups such as celebrities.
Conclusion
This literature review has given an outline of the major theoretical frameworks to be applied during the course of the research. It is in no way meant to be an exhaustive list of every theory within marketing or a summary of all the past research concerning celebrities but serves as a guide to the critical theoretical assumptions which underpinned this work and formed the basis for the proposed research.
References
Abelson, E. (1989) When Ladies Go A-Thieving: Middle Class Shoplifters in the Victorian Store,Oxford New York, Oxford University Press.
Asch, S.E. (1955) Effects of Group Pressure upon the Modification and Distortion of Judgments, in Macoby, E.E. et al (eds) Readings in Social Psychology, Pittsburgh, Carnegie-Mellon Press.
Blackwell, R.D., Miniard, P.W. & Engel, J.F. (2000) Consumer Behaviour, USA,Dryden.
Bohdanowicz, J. & Clamp, L. (1994) Fashion Marketing, London UK, Routledge.
Bradley, S.(1996) Marketers Are Always Looking for Good Pitchers, Brandweek, February.
Butler, G. & McManus, F. (2000) Psychology: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford New York.
Oxford University Press.
Byrne, A., Whitehead, M. & Breen, S. (2003) The Naked Truth of Celebrity Endorsement, British Food Journal, Vol. 105 Issue 4/5.
Cohen, J.B. & Golden, E. (1972) Informational Social Influence and Product Evaluation, Journal of Applied Psychology, Feb. Vol. 54 Issue 9.
Desmond, J. (2003) Consuming Behaviour, Basingstoke, Palgrave.
Domosh, M. (1996) The Feminized Retail Landscape: Gender, Ideology and Consumer Culture in 19th Century New York City, in Lowe, M. and Wrigley, N. (eds) Retailing, Consumption and Capital, UK, Longman Group Limited.
Entwistle, J. (2000) The Fashioned Body, Cambridge UK, Polity Press.
Frenie, J., Frenie, S. A & Moore, C. (2003) Principles of Retailing, Oxford New York, Butterworth-Heinemann.
Foxall, G.R., Goldsmith, R.E. & Brown, S. (1998) Consumer Psychology for marketing 2nd edition, London UK, Thomson Business Press.
Hawkins, D.I., Best, R.J. & Coney, K.A. (1989) Consumer Behaviour: Implications for Marketing Strategy, Boston USA, Mass.
Hurley, S. and Chater, N. (2005) Perspectives on Imitation: from Neuroscience to Social science, Cambridge Mass USA, MIT Press.
Jobber, D. (2001) Principles & Practice of Marketing 3rd edition, London UK, McGraw-Hill.
Keller, K.L. (1998) Strategic Brand Management: Building, Measuring and Managing Brand Equity 2nd edition, N.J.USA, Prentice Hall.
Lanman, S. (2003) A Creative Philosophy or Two (or Three), Advertising Age, Vol. 74 Issue 17.
Mackintosh, N.J. (1983) Conditioning and Associative Learning, New York USA, Oxford University Press.
Myers, G. (1995) Psychology, New York USA, Worth Press.
Mowen, J. & Minor, M. (2003) Consumer Behavior: A Framework, USA, Prentice Hall.
Schiffman, L.G. & Kanuk, L.L. (2004) Consumer Behavior 8th edition, USA, Pearson Prentice Hall.
Solomon, M., Bamossy, G. & Askegaard, S. (2002) Consumer Behaviour: A European Perspective 2nd edition, Harlow UK, FT Prentice Hall.
Solomon, M. (2003) Consumer Behavior: buying, having, and being, USA, Prentice Hall.
Stephens, J. (2003) Perspectives On Individual Behavior, in Brooks, I., Organisational Behaviour: Individuals, Groups and Organisation, London UK, Pearson Education Limited.
Stewart, J. (1999) Employee Development Practice, UK, Financial Times Pitman Publishing.
Till, B.T.(1998) Using Celebrity Endorsement Effectively: Lessons from Associative Learning, Journal of Product and Brand Management, Vol.7 Issue 5.
Ueltschy, L.C. & Krampf, R.F. (2001) Cultural Sensitivity to Satisfaction and Service Quality Measure, Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, Summer.
Research Proposal
Introduction
Marketing as a central concept in modern business theory is defined as companies achieving their strategic goals in terms of maximising profits and corporate growth through satisfying customers, (Houston, 1986). Early marketing principles and approaches focused more on the integration and co-ordination of all the marketing functions within a strategic sense of a company's operations, (Felton, 1959). However due to nature of competition in the modern business world being both extensive and intensive the marketing function has become closely lined with the competitive advantages enjoyed by a company. Therefore Kotler et al (1996) suggest that the achievement of organisational and corporate goals depends on determining the needs and wants of the target market and delivering the desired satisfactions effectively and efficiently.
From this perspective then it is necessary and vital for companies to understand customers and then satisfy their needs better than competitors are able to. Thus a marketing communication mix is often used by companies in building brand equity in terms of the intangible values of a brand in order to create and maintain competitive advantages, (Duncan, 2005). Keller (1998) suggests that customer based brand equity is dependent on customer learning through word of mouth as well as past experience of purchasing and using products and accumulated feelings about the brand as a result of usage. It is obvious then that customers as normal human beings experience consuming behaviour as a complex inner psychological process which is influenced by a range of external effects including social and cultural factors. Thus marketers tend to use advertising particularly celebrity endorsement to create and enhance brand image in order to motivate consumer's desire for fashion products in particular as a means of need fulfilment in terms of self-esteem and social status within peer groups.
The use of celebrity in advertising is not a new phenomenon particularly in relation to fashion products since fashion has a complicated relationship to people's identity in such a way in that celebrities are often viewed as a useful endorsement in transferring and communicating the meanings and symbols of a brand image to the general public. However consumer behaviour is a comprehensive and complex process and Shiffman and Kanuk (2004) argue that it is vital to consider fashion product purchasing behaviour as a complete process namely from information searching, buying, using, evaluating and disposing stages bearing in mind the potential effects of celebrity advertisement on any of these stages. In addition due to the social status requirements particularly among younger age groups who are more readily influenced by peer and reference groups celebrities may be a powerful tool. However increased self-consciousness among particular demographics such as older consumers may see celebrity endorsement as being less successful marketing approaches.
Researchers have begun to focus on the importance of the concept of desire in understanding consumer behaviour which turns away from pure consumer satisfaction to conceptualising desire in the motivational process, (Solomon, Bamossy and Askegaard, 2002). From this perspective consumer's motivation levels tend to influence their desire to put effort into obtaining fashion products as an instrument in satisfying their needs. Thus Zaichkowsky (1985) argues that involvement which refers to perceived relevance of the objectives based on needs, values and interests determine the motivation for people to search product-related information. According to Jobber (2001) price is often used as a indicator to measure the involvement level as people tend to put more attempt in gathering information from internet, TV or fashion magazines related to fashion products due to their expense. In contrast consumer behaviour exhibited by low involvement consumers is suggested to be as a result of them being less interested in looking for information but to a large degree relying on their own beliefs, attitudes and experiences, (Foxall et al, 1998). It is interesting to say that people with high involvement levels depend more on objective information namely motivation from external effects while consumers with low involvement in the searching process tend to be more self evaluative. However the effectiveness of celebrity advertisements on those two groups of consumers varies so it is useful to investigate the relationship between the level of involvement and the degree of the effectiveness of celebrity advertisement in marketing fashion products in terms of their impact on motivations and usage experience.
The digital revolution has shaped the way people communicate as well as advertising forms in business. Schiffman and Kanuk (2004) suggest that the digital revolution allows for much greater customerisation of products and promotional messages in such means in that traditional consumer attitude and behavioural forms display new characteristics towards modern advertisements in today's environment. From the consumer's point of view the sense of self and personality have become more important in shaping people's buying activities. As such fashion companies seek to create strong brand images in meeting this requirement by using celebrities, (Solomon et al, 2002). In addition in the UK it is estimated that 3571 million pounds is spent on press advertisements by firms and only 3333 million pounds spent in on TV advertisements, (Wilmshurrt & Mackay, 2002). This feature of advertising seems to be rooted in consumer behaviour research yet the key factors in determining the effectiveness of celebrity advertisement in terms of TV campaigns, magazine advertisements or radio remains unclear. This is to say that due to the changing forces in external environmental contexts it is useful to investigate and evaluate the critical factors in determining effective responses from customers after celebrity advertising.
Objectives
Advertisement by celebrities is used widely by fashion marketers to communicate with their target customers. Schiffman and Kanuk (2004) believe that celebrities can be a powerful force in creating motivation and action with regard to buying certain fashion goods or particular fashion brands. However Foxall and Goldsmith (1998) believe that fashion advertisement does not create strong pre-purchase attitudes but impacts on and causes changes to occur in consumer's perception process. As such it would seem that the complexity of consumer purchasing behaviour of fashion products is matched with a complexity in assessing the impact of any of celebrity advertising on such behaviour. In the case of this research two stages of purchasing behaviour were the focus of examination that of motivation to buy and evaluation of products. This research focuses on a series of endorsements on TV, magazine and radio advertisement by sports celebrities of a popular brand of footwear and what was the impact of these advertisements on motivation to buy and evaluation of usage.
Therefore the first objective of this research is designed to examine to what extent the impact of celebrity advertisement influences consumer behaviour at the motivation and perception stages. This is particularly important for marketers because it is believed that customer satisfaction is to a large extent associated with individual's expectation of future results in the perception process. This means the degree of power a celebrity exerts as a motivational tool towards purchasing a product may be through the generation of demand for consumers who expect to achieve expected desirable outcomes by purchasing the fashion products advertised by celebrities. In this research the objective is not only focus on internal motivational factors exhibited by individuals and how these have been influenced by the use of celebrity advertising but an important aspect is to explore how these internal motivational factors are related to external social elements such as peer or reference group influences.
The second objective of the research is to explore the impact of celebrity advertising on the evaluation of products. The aim of this particular aspect of the research is to explore the degree of match between celebrity endorsed expectations of product usage experienced by individuals with an evaluation of the product after purchase. Similarly this objective of the research sought to explore possible mismatches between what were celebrity endorsed expectations of product usage and what were actual negative experiences of individuals of using products and to what degree these negative influences were mitigated or not by continued celebrity endorsement. A further aim here is to explore the degree to which this feature is dependent on age, or in other words on whether younger age groups were more willing to discount negative experiences in favour of celebrity endorsed expectations of product usage.
Framing both these objectives then is an overriding concern with assessing the relative impact of different factors on these particular stages of the purchasing process but relating these in context with one another. Thus in aiming to assess the impact on celebrities on motivation to purchase an assessment is aimed to be made of the impact on individuals but also how these impacts are communicated between individuals and diffused within group settings. Similarly the degree to which negative experiences (or positive ones) of product usage are diffused within groups after purchased is assessed in the context of the continued possible impact of further celebrity endorsement. A context based approach such as this it is hoped will yield valuable insights into the complex behaviours involved in purchasing and the complexity of impacts internal and external on such behaviours, (Zaichkowsky, 1985).
Methodology
A combinational approach drawing on both qualitative and quantitative research methods is envisaged for this research both to ensure a certain amount of triangulation related to the research objectives but also as internal mechanism for exploring aspects of the research question also. Two main stages are planned for the research the first of which is a quantitative based survey utilising a questionnaire followed by a second stage which is more qualitatively orientated utilising both focus groups and semi-structured interviews. By using these twin approaches it is expected that data will be generated which will offer 'thin' explanations based on the quantitative data generated into the effects of celebrity endorsement which can be added to by 'thick' contextual based explanations derived from the qualitative research tools, (Denzin and Lincoln, 1998a).
The initial stage of this research aims to use a quantitative based survey utilising a questionnaire. The locations where the questionnaires are to be carried out are within two UK cities at two university campuses and at two shopping centres within each city. A sample of 250 per location giving 1,000 in total is planned. The choice of locations is consciously made in order to acquire a sample which reflects a younger generation, i.e. that of university students and more older shoppers which is planned to be achieved by delivering the questionnaires at the shopping centres over the course of the weekend. The questionnaires will be interviewer administered as to ensure validity of the data in terms of the research objectives respondents will have to have at least watched or heard the advertisements for the product involved.
Data to be generated by the questionnaires includes personal data such as age and gender in order to build a demographic profile of those who have heard or seen the advertisements. It will then seek to generate attitudinal data of two varieties, one focusing on the product and the company and also on the particular celebrity used in each of the two advertisements. The final type of data sought by the questionnaires will seek to explore past behaviour in terms of purchasing the product and future behaviour in purchasing the product, (Proctor, 2000). Those respondents who answer positive to having bought the product already or those who express a strong preference for buying the product in the future will be used as a sampling frame for the second stage of the research by the interviewer asking them about their willingness to participate and then to provide contact details for a follow up call.
From the first stage of the research it is planned that 20 further respondents will participate in two focus groups containing 10 individuals each. These two focus groups are planned to be representative of two demographics that of under 23s and over 23s. The focus groups are planned to last for 40 minutes and include a viewing of the three celebrity advertisements used for the product which is expected to last 5-10 minutes. Based on the data generated by the questionnaires the moderator will lead a discussion by the group focusing on whether the celebrity is relevant to the product, the group's perception of the celebrity as well as the product and what the experience of members of the group has been with using the product. A particular aspect the moderator will seek to explore is the dynamic between members of the group who have purchased and used the product with those who have not and how much the celebrity endorsement is a part of this interaction, (Jensen, 2002). By using groups which constitute two different age groups it is expected that data will be generated concerning the relative impact of celebrity advertising in relation to the age of individuals.
A further sample is expected to be drawn from these focus groups of four respondents to participate in semi-structured interviews to last 1 hour. The use of semi-structured interviews will allow the researcher to not only ask a pre-determined set of questions based on the data generated by the questionnaire but also allow for a more in-depth exploration of any elements which arose during the focus groups with respondents. This flexibility show allow for the generation of very useful data related to the previous stages of the research as respondents will be free to give their opinions and thoughts in more detail on the relevant parts of the research to date. The interviews in particular will aim to explore on subjective individual accounts of their experiences of the product as well as their motivations to buy but also explore any issues such as reference group effects that may have been witnessed during the focus group.
In terms of data analysis use will be made of the SPSS package in analysing the data generated by the questionnaire. This data will also be used in order to help and construct a coding system to help guide the analysis of the focus group and interview data as well as aid in constructing the questions to be asked during both these segments, (Denzin and Lincoln, 1998b). Both focus groups and interviews will be recorded once no objections to recording are made by participants and the data will be transcribed and use made of the NVivo package to help in coding the data and analysing the results in terms of the various factors identified in the research objectives, (Denzin and Lincoln, 1998c).
A number of problems will be faced during the conduct of this research and these problems can be seen in terms of implementation of the research tools, problems with data and ethical problems with the research. In terms of implementation the biggest foreseeable challenge will be locating participants willing to invest a not too inconsiderable amount of time in participating in the research should they be involved in all of the stages. A minor inducement is planned for all participants in the focus groups of vouchers for the product and for those who participate in the interviews a further voucher will be provided in compensation for their time, (Burns and Bush, 2000). Access will be sought from the relevant authorities at the two university campuses as well as the two shopping centres in order to acquire permission to conduct the questionnaire during specified days. The researcher will aim to have two assistants both of whom it is expected will assist with the questionnaires and one of whom will assist in the focus groups.
Problems related to data are a feature of much research and this is the case for the research planned here also. Principally given the complexities of the behavioural influences investigated it may be the case that data may be quite complex in terms of relating it to the research objectives. Similarly in using focus groups and interviews to a lesser extent participant bias in terms of data is a consideration, in the sense of respondents saying what the researcher wants to here or in the case of focus groups of dominant participants leading the discussion. However given the research objectives the researcher believes that such features may indeed be possible strengths to the research and ultimately may lead to data which is very pertinent to the objectives of the research. Recalling the observation that opinion formers and leaders may shape consumer behaviour and such leaders may be reference groups such as celebrities or peer groups then within the focus group dynamic such dominant personalities may give an insight into how this process occurs. Ethical problems are similarly a concern for all research, in this case anonymity and confidentiality in terms of the questionnaires and interviews will be ensured at all times, (Malhotra and Birks, 2003). In the case of the focus group it will be made clear that all identifying features within the transcripts will be removed. Participation will be sought by the researcher for the focus groups and interviews on the basis of a clear explanation as to what will be involved and the types of discussions and questions to be expected in order to assist respondents in making an informed decision as to whether they wish to participate or not.
Conclusion
From this research and the nature of the data expected to be generated it is expected that insights will be gained into the complexity of consumer purchasing behaviour of fashion products and the relationship and impact on this of celebrity advertising and endorsement of such products. It is not expected however that any definitive outcomes will be made given the complexity of the research area but it would be hoped that this research and its design could be expanded in the future to take cognisance of a wider variety of factors and explore in more detail given larger samples the key objectives outlined above.
References
Bagozzi, R.P., Gurhan-Canli, Z. & Priester, J.R. (2002) The Social Psychology of Consumer Behaviour, Open University Press, UK.
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